Study Area Descriptions

LLBN

The Lewa-Lolldaiga-Borana-Ngare Ndare (LLBN) study site is a savanna rangeland landscape in the central highlands of Kenya that extends north from the lower slopes of Mt. Kenya, straddling the boundary between Meru and Laikipia counties. The four main properties are located at 0.11 = 0.34° latitude and 37.07-37.53° longitude. The study site-centered ecosystem (SCE) exhibits three main “arms” with on extending south around the western edge of Mt. Kenya, one extending east along the southern side of the B9 highway to the northeastern edge of Meru County, and the longest and largest arm extending 130 km northwest to Maralal with some isolated islands of similar ecosystem to the north and west. The entire SCE is located between -0.3° and 2.3° latitude, and between 36.3° and 38.1° longitude.

Rainfall is highly variable, but is typically between 400 and 600 mm annually. During droughts, total annual rainfall can drop below 200 mm. Rainfall generally follows a north-south gradient with more rainfall at higher elevations in the south. The landscape sits at 1400-2370 m with higher elevations in Ngare-Ndare forest and south-central Lolldaiga and the lowest elevations in Lewa and northeast Borana. Soil types are highly variable throughout the landscape but consist primarily of Luvisols (Haplic and Vertic) and Dystric Regosols. Vegetation communities are predominantly Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets with montane forests at higher elevations (Dinerstein et al. 2017).

Each of the four core properties are subject to divergent management practices. Lewa Wildlife Conservancy is mostly owned by The Nature Conservancy but has a number of small, privately owned enclaves. The reserve is almost exclusively used for photographic tourism but does have some livestock grazing, especially along the community road and in a section nicknamed ‘Bosnia’ where the community have grazing rights. Over the last 30 years, the conservancy has increasingly adopted elephant and large-mammal exclosures as a major management practice aimed at increasing tree cover on the conservancy.

Lolldaiga ranch is principally a livestock ranch but is also used by free ranging wildlife. Historically, the ranch was intensively grazed but recently new management has implemented a regenerative grazing regime based on intensive grazing by a few large, fast-moving herds. The grazing regime is intended to stimulate grass productivity and prevent selective grazing by livestock herds.

Borana Conservancy is a dual use wildlife and livestock ranch that also includes privately owned enclaves. In addition to photographic tourism, the conservancy produces cattle and has a partnership with a local community that extends limiting grazing rights to community herders. Borana has a few large-mammal exclosures, especially along the river that runs between Lewa and Borana.

Ngare-Ndare forest is a state forest reserve but is managed by the Ngare-Ndare Forest Trust on behalf of six villages. The Trust administers sustainable use of the forest by the six communities, predominantly for firewood collection and grazing. The forest also has small-scale tourism operations. The forest is predominantly populated with wild olives and junipers.

North of Lewa, Borana, and Lolldaiga are several community conservancies that practice predominatly pastoral lifestyles as well as the Mukogodo Forest, which is a forest conservancy managed on behalf of four neighboring communities. On the western boundary of Lolldaiga Ranch is Kupona, a small experiemental plot for testing restoration interventions.

3.3 ORKCA

The ORKCA (Orange River Karoo Conservation Area) landscape is located at joining point of the Succulent Karoo, Nama Karoo and Desert biomes, just north of the Orange River. It is a harsh dry landscape, characterised by frequent drought and unreliable rainfall. Mean annual rainfall in the landscape is ~125mm, mostly falling betweeen February and April, though this number fluctuates substantially, with many years showing rainfall amounts well below this annual mean. Though anecdotal, it is worth mentioning that farmers and landowners in the area have remarked that mean annual rainfall seems to be decreasing.

The Orange River flows west through the region, with the high water mark on the Namibian side of the river delineating the boundary between South Africa and Namibia. The river provides an important water source for local communities in an otherwise arid landscape. Local herders bring cattle, sheep and goats to drink at the river, and the riverbed provides a route for relatively easy movement by locals from both sides of the border. Herders also often build huts just below the high water mark. Smuggling of abalone, drugs and other illegal products is common across the river, unfortunately meaning that the river poses a security threat to properties located along its edge. The land on the South African side of the river is predominantly community owned and open to the river while the land on the Namibian side is predominantly privately owned, with some properties fenced off from the river due to security concerns. The Orange River is severely infested by invasive prosopis trees, which dominant the riparian zone, though they are interspersed with some native tree species. The prosopis is thick and runs all the way up the Orange River to its source. Removing prosopis is challenging as it coppices when cut, meaning that stumps cannot be left once trees are chopped; they need to be removed entirely, or poisoned.

Vegetation in the area is sparse, and strongly dependant on the underlying geology. Rocky hillslopes are home to quiver trees and succulents, while flatter, sandier plains provide growing conditions for more grasses and forbs. Large mammals in the area include Cape Mountain Zebra, Oryx, Kudu, Springbok, Leopard, Caracal, Jackal and Black-footed Cat. Aardvarks have historically been seen in the area but there have been no sightings mentioned since a severe 6 year drought which ended in 2018. Unlike in Kenya, Namibian laws allow for the private ownership of wildlife, and when a piece of land is purchased the understanding is that it comes with whatever wildlife is present at the time. Sometimes the seller will request more money based on the amount of wildlife on the land. Farmers are allowed to hunt wildlife for consumption on their land. Oryx and Kudu easily jump farm fences and pass between properties, while Zebra and Springbok do not. Predators threaten livestock and thus are hunted prolifically by farmers in the area.

The most common form of land use in the area is sheep farming, as the naturally occurring vegetation is not sufficient for cattle rearing. Farmers divide their land with internal fences, and move sheep between large camps, based on grass availability. Sheep are left in camps at night and farmers attempt to remove as many predators as possible from their land to limit livestock losses. However, they still accept a lamb loss rate of approximately 30%, including both natural and predator inflicted mortality. Insufficient grass due to irregular rainfall is a big problem for farmers. Some farmers have goats as well as sheep. In the landscape it is generally assumed that 1 sheep requires 10-15 hectares of land. Lamb prices fluctuate, but lamb is currently sold for R81/kg, and 1 lamb weighs approximately 16-18kg. Farmers generally aim to earn R1million gross income per 1000 sheep. The land north of the Orange River is also of significant interest to prospectors and miners. Historically, the region has been known for diamonds, however mining interest now is predominantly centered around lithium and tantalite.